SWEET SIDE OF SWEET POTATO final part

MEDICINAL VALUES OF SWEET POTATO LEAVES


Apart from the tubers of sweet potato the leaves are also edible. The leaves of sweet potato are well parked with minerals (sodium, potassium, aluminum, boron, copper, calcium, zinc, magnesium, phosphorus, manganese and sulphur), vitamins ( vitamin C, A, K thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and folic acid), antioxidants, dietary fibers and many other nutrients.

HEALTHY HEART

The leaves of sweet potato contain a good amount of vitamin K. vitamin K helps to prevent artery calcification which is one of the main causes of heart attacks. It also helps in the reduction of inflammation of arteries and veins. An adequate intake of vitamin K helps to maintain a healthy blood pressure and also reduces the risk of cardiac arrest.

IMPROVED GUM HEALTH

Cavities and gum problems results from intake of food low in vitamin C, A, D and K. foods rich in fat soluble vitamins is needed to prevent gum diseases and tooth decay. Such foods also plays vital role in mineralisation of teeth and bones. Leaves of sweet potato are rich in the above minerals, regular intake of sweet potato leaves can help keep the teeth strong and healthy. The leaves are also rich in minerals which also help in the elimination of bacteria present in the mouth and teeth. Vitamin K works with other vitamins and minerals to eradicate bacteria that damage the tooth enamel. Sweet potato leaves also helps in maintenance of strong teeth by providing adequate amount of mineral.

DENSITY OF BONES

Vitamin K is needed in the body for the maintenance of calcium in bones thus reducing the chances of osteoporosis. Vitamin K is an essential constituent needed in the use calcium to form bones. Studies have shown that high and regular intake of vitamin K can help prevent bone loss in osteoporosis patient. For postmenopausal women, vitamin K reduces the chances of bone fracture. Vitamin K2 also found in sweet potato reduces the chances of hip fracture by about 60%. This is proved by the conjunction of vitamin K and vitamin D in enhancing the density of bones. Consumption foods high in vitamin K such as sweet potato can help injured patients recover broken bones.

MENSURATION PAIN MANAGEMENT

Vitamin K in sweet potato leaves regulates certain hormones needed for blood clot such as thrombin. It lowers PMS cramps and pain in the process. Vitamin K achieves this by increasing the level of blood clotting thus preventing excessive menstrual bleeding. Over bleeding during menstruation can cause more pain and cramps. Deficiency of vitamin K can worsen the cramps and pain, regular intake of food high in vitamin K such as sweet potato leaves is recommended.

CLOTTING OF BLOOD

Since the leaves of sweet potato are high in vitamin K which is required for blood clotting, it is highly needed in the healing process of wounds. When blood doesn’t clot properly death may occur due to excessive loss of blood even from small wounds.

IMPROVED VISION

“Just like the tuber, sweet potato leaves are well packed with vitamin A. the vitamin A present in the leaves can help prevent macular degeneration which is a major cause of blindness” reports health benefit times.  Study has shown that intake of food rich in vitamin c, vitamin A, zinc, vitamin E and copper such as sweet potato can help reduce the chances of macular degeneration by 25%. Vitamin A can also help slow down the development of various eyes diseases such as Stargardt’s disease which leads to vision loss in young people.

SWEET SIDE OF SWEET POTATO part4

MEDICINAL VALUES OF SWEET POTATO

Control Of Diabetes

Sweet potato has a low glycemic index (that means they release sugar slowly into the bloodstream) Sweet potato unlike other starchy food that elevate sugar level rapidly after they are consumed due to their metabolism into sugar will help steady the levels of blood sugar. According to American Diabetes Association (AMA) “sweet potatoes are considered super food for diabetics.” they have been shown to stabilize blood-sugar level by lowering insulin resistance. They contain a high amount of fiber, which also helps to reduce bad Low Density Level cholesterol in the body. Studies has shown that apart from the low glycemic index and high fiber content, sweet potato also increases adiponectin (adiponectin is a protein found in humans which is involved in the regulation of glucose level and break down of fatty acid) in people with type 2 diabetes.

 Dr John Allen, ALS professor of food science; Dr. van den truong, USDA-ARS food scientist and assistant professor of food science at N.C State and Dr Masood Butt from the University of Agriculture Pakistan conducted a study that confirms the recognized low glycemic index of sweet potato. Sweet potato proteins contain numerous nutraceutical properties. An extract from white-skin sweet potato cultivar which is marketed as an antidiabetic supplement has been shown to lower fasting blood sugar levels and increase insulin sensitivity in type2 diabetics (Ludvik et al. 2003, Kusano et al 2005). Amylase inhibitors have also been identified in sweet potato, the amylase inhibitory activities varies by cultivar (Rekha et al. 1999). These amylase inhibitors are known to have positive impact on diabetes management and weight control due to their ability to slow or reduce starch digestion, thus slowing or lowering glucose absorption and glycemic response.

Blood Pressure

Sweet potatoes are highly rich in potassium and magnesium-two nutrients that helps maintain blood pressure and kidney function. Sweet potato as already established has a high fiber content which has been linked to lower risks of heart problems. The daily requirement of potassium for a healthy heart is 4,700milligram and a medium sized sweet potato is packed with as much as 542milligrams of potassium.



 Anti-Inflammatory Properties

Sweet potato contains certain pigments such as Anthocynin. Anthocynin is a water-soluble vacuolar pigment that has the ability to protect the human body against many diseases. Anthocynin and certain other phytochemicals found in sweet potato are believed to have anti-inflammatory health benefits.

 In studies using animals, activation of nuclear factor-kappa B(nf-kb); activation of inducible nitric acid nitric oxide synthose (iNOS), cyclogynase-2 (COX-2) and formation of malondiahyde (MDA); these are known to induce inflammation in animals (Gripper et. al.,  2013). The induced inflammation is known to reduce after steady consumption of sweet potato tubers. Inflammatory reduction by sweet potato phytonutrients marks a clear role for this food in inflammation-related health problems.

Using animals, studies have shown that reduced inflammation in brain tissues and nerve tissues occur following sweet potato consumption.

Phytonutrients found in sweet potato also impacts the glycoprotein fibrinogen. Fibrinogen is required for blood clotting in the body. Fibrinogen acts alongside a coagulant factor called thrombin as it is converted to fibrin during the blood clotting process. Balanced amount of fibrinogen and thrombin is needed in maintaining a sound health and sealing off wounds. In excess amount in the body these clotting molecules may become hazardous in the body. Excess fibrinogen and fibrin in the body can trigger unwanted secretion of pro-inflammatory molecules such as cytokines and chemokines. In animal studies, too much of fibrin has been associated with breakdown of the myelin sheet that allows for normal conduction of electric signals. This breakdown of the myelin sheet due to excess fibrin in the nervous system can lead to multiple diseases such as sclerosis. Consumption of sweet potato has shown a reduction of fibrin level in animals, this reduction is due to the actions of phytonutrients found in sweet potato.

Anti-Bacterial and anti-Fungal Characteristics

Sweet potato has been shown to contain nutrient groups such as resin glycosides. These nutrients are sugar-related and starch related molecule that are unusual in their molecular arrangement. Research has shown that some groups of these resin glycosides stand out due to their anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties, this group is called batatins (includes batatin 1 and batatin2). Research has shown that the group batatosides(including batatoside 3, batatoside4 and batatoside5) are usually found in large amount in sweet potato (Noda and Horiuchi, 2008). Lab studies have shown these glycosides to have anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties.

Dietary fibre from the root of sweet potato showed inhibitory effect against food borne bacteria (Yoshimoto et. al)

Anti-Cancer Properties

Sweet potato is an excellent food for both prevention and management of cancer. Sweet potato extracts inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis in prostate cancer cells in vivo and in vitro (Karna et. al., 2011). According to Tomzawa in the book the way to healthy life, drinking 0.2l of potato juice every day can help cure cancer. Professor Kagman from medical University in Akita(Japan)  carried out an experiment with a mouse whose tumor growth was suppressed with sweet potato extracts.
A recent study has shown that purple fleshed sweet potato has an inhibitory effect on MCF-7 (breast cancer) and SNU-1(gastric cancer) cancer cell lines (Sugata et. al., 2015).

Other studies have shown that extracts from sweet potato can lead to tumor suppression various types of cancer such as prostate cancer. The cancerous cells have been shown to undergo apoptosis thus ensuring that the cancer does not spread to other parts of the body. The anti- prostate cancer activity of sweet potato is due to the high polyphenol content. The presence of beta-carotene in sweet potato has also been reported to have significant effect on the reduction of prostate cancer in men. Beta-carotene has also been shown to be effective in preventing the onset of colorectal cancer. The presence of other carotenoids in sweet potato helps to block the process of harmful oxidative damage in the cells. Sweet potato contains more than 600 types of carotenoid compounds, these compounds help in prevention and cure of different cancer types. Sweet potato also contain the plant based protein sporamin, this protein has anticancer effects. Sporamin also slows the growth of cancer and prevents its spread to other parts of the body Scalbert et. al., 2005).

Studies have shown that sweet potato can be effective against certain cancer types such as leukemia, colon cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer and cancer of the tongue.

Healthy Eyes

Sweet potato has high beta-carotene content. Its beta-carotene is converted into vitamin A which strengthens the eyes. The lack of vitamin in the body causes the outside segment of photoreceptors wear out which eventually disrupts normal vision. Orange varieties are high in beta carotene which is a precursor of vitamin A (Low et. al., 2015). Consumption of food high in vitamin A will lead to repair of worn out photoreceptor and thus improved eyesight. Daily intake of sweet potato provides the daily requirement of 1.033% of vitamin A in the body. Sweet potato also contains good amount of vitamin C, minerals and fibers which are need for improved functions of the optic nerve system and the retina. There have been reports sweet potato can help in the treatment of cataract and nyctalopia.

Anti-Ulcer Potential

 Ulcer is characterised by the shedding of inflamed tissue from the skin or mucous membrane (Hermes et. al., 2013) Methanol extracted from sweet potato root showed gastro protective activity against aspirin-induced ulcer in Wister rats in dose dependent manner (panda et. al., 2012).

Good Energy Source

Sweet potato contains minerals such as iron and magnesium that can increase energy level in the body. Iron stimulates the production of red blood cells and is also found in hemoglobin. Iron is a major player in the distribution of oxygen around the body. A medium sweet potato provides 162 calorie, 0g fat, 37g carbohydrate (including 6g of fiber and 12g of sugar). The high calorie and carbohydrate content of medium sweet potato shows that sweet potato is an efficient source of energy (Yoshida and Hiroshi 1962)

 HEALTHY SKIN

The vitamin A found in sweet potato may help protect the skin against sun damage, according 2004 study in the journal clinical cancer research. Vitamin C and E found in the tuber are good for maintaining the overall beauty of the skin by making the skin healthier and shiny. They also encourage healthy, glowing skin and collagen growth. Collagen is very useful in keeping the skin elasticity. Another action of sweet potato on the skin is its ability to mask oily skin problem. Applying well-cooked sweet potato which was allowed to cool with an addition of honey on the face can help mask oily skin and also moisturize the skin. The water used in boiling sweet potato is also medicinal. The water when cooled can be used as a face or skin washer, it has the ability to improve the skin texture. It can also absorb the dirt on the skin, clean skin pores and calm irritated skin.

THE QUAKE; THE ANCIENT EMPIRE OF MALI (Sundiata and the birth of Mali)

Sundiata

The rise of the empire of Mali was due to the madingo people who lived in the Mandinka Plateau between the upper streams of Senegal and Niger. During the rise and height of Ghana’s power, the Madingo people lived in villages scattered around the plateau. The scattered villages became united during a revolt against the oppressive rule of Sumanguru of Susu. Sumanguru conquered the Madingos’ and ruled them from the ancient capital Kumbi.

A noble prince of Kangaba whose name was  Sundiata led the people of Madingo in revolt against the rule of Sumanguru. Sundiata soon became a national hero.

Sundiata is believed to be the son of Nare Maghan, the ruler of Kangaba , by his second wife, Sologon born in the year 1217 AD. Though before his birth the seers of Kangaba prophesied that the boy Sundiata will become a great leader, interestingly Sundiata could not walk nor talk for most of his infancy, this disappointed Nare Maghn. Nare Maghn died living his kingdom to Dankaran Touman, the son of his senior wife. Dankaran lacked principles and of a weak character.

The queen mother(mother of Dankaran) had to take up power ruling behind the veil. She hated Sundiata’s mother leading to her humiliation most often. Sundiata’s predicament in childhood became an item of ridicule for the queen mother.
 This jest did not last for long for Sundiata slowly regained the ability to walk and talk. The young sundiata grew into a youth of great physical strength. His strength made him and undisputed fighter among his peers and also the greatest hunter alive. Such was his prowess and skills in fighting he became the leader of his mates.

Sundiata’s remarkable turn around drew jealousy from the Queen mother. She feared Sundiata may one day seek to usurp power from his son and thus began to plot the assassination of young Sundiata. When her motives became a reading paper, Sologon brought together her children and fled the land.

Fleeing the land of Kangaba did not bring repose to Sologon and her children. The Queen mother’s threat to her son’s life followed her where ever she and her children sojourned. During the race for safety, Sundiata's development into a full adult of great strength and wisdom occurred. The family reached Mema were they finally settled in peace and away from the piercing eyes of the queen mother. Sundiata at this time bubbled with courage and strength, he became a feared warrior. His physique and commanding personality meant almost none was able to debate any command given by him.

The ruler of Mema placed Sundiata in charge of his cavalry. He was also made the viceroy whenever the ruler was away from his capital. It is believed Sundiata became next in line to the throne of Mema since the ruler of Mema remained childless. During this time Kangaba was under the rule of Sumanguru who ruled Kangaba harshly. A rebellion erupted within Kangaba  against Sumanguru’s harsh rulership, a mistake the whole Kangaba paid dearly for. In response to this rebellion Sumanguru invaded Kangaba laying waste its capital Jeriba. He also ensured the princes of Kangaba were killed while he ruled Kangaba directly.

 In the commotion of the invasion Dankaran Touman fled Kangaba.
The people of Kangaba did not give up on their wish for an independent state. They sought for an able leader which they found in the exiled Sundiata.  In about 1230 AD they sent emissaries to the court of Mema in search of the prince they needed to return to Kangaba.

 Sundiata saw an opportuinity to sit on his father’s throne, he mustered a small cavalry in Mema  and marched westward in search of more men. He persuaded the rulers of Madingo to join him in war against Susu.

Being a tactical man he avoided
direct conflict with the main Susu army until he deemed his army fit in numbers and strength. In 1235 AD his tactics caught up with him. He finally took up battle formation at Kirina, near Kulikoro in the Niger valley against the main Susu army commanded by Sumanguru himself.
The Susu army was more in number however the great leadership skill Sundiata exhibited brought victory to his army. He made sure his cavalry positioned at the best place on the battle field from where they rained havoc on Sumanguru and his soldiers..

sundiata’s victory was so comprehensive that sumunguru disappeared with his remaining soldiers never to be seen again. To solidified his victory he attacked the well garrisoned city of Susu, capturing the city he burnt it to the ground. Sundiata did not spare the ancient city of Kumbi, in 1240 AD, his army sacked the city of Kumbi the ancient capital of Ghana Empire.

Sundiata also demanded full authority over his allies. At the ruins of Jeriba he became the overlord and the emperor of a unified empire. He restored the territories of his allies to them, though they remained under his overlordship. He allowed these sub-rulers to wield local powers . He also conferred titles and honours to these sub-rulers. Special duties were assigned to each ruler thus the new empire was born.

 Sundiata became the first Mansa (emperor) of the Empire of Mali.
To consolidate power he built a new capital at Niani near the confluence of Niger and Sankarani. He then turned his attention to the development of wealth in the empire. He encouraged agriculture especially the growing of cotton, to supply the city’s needs. His soldiers attacked and took the gold-fields of Wangara. The gold captured were moved to the capital city Niani increasing the overall wealth of the kingdom. His excellent laws and formidable military strength made the empire one of great importance.

Sundiata died mysteriously in 1255AD, however vast lands were already conquered before his death. He laid the foundation on which the other Mansa’ built on. Sundiata lived above adversities of his early life to become the first great emperor of the ancient Kingdom of Mali.

SWEET SIDE OF SWEET POTATO part3

MEDICINAL VALUES OF SWEET POTATO

Treatment of Vitamin A deficiency

Ipomea batatas (sweet potato) is a powerful nutritional pack. Sweet potatoes are known to be great source of beta-carotene. Beta-carotene is converted into Vitamin A in the body.

Sweet Potato to an extent can be used to combat Vitamin A deficiency which is prevalent in Africa and rarely seen in developed countries. The first symptom of Vitamin A deficiency or Hypovitaminosis A is Nyctalopia (night blindness). If left untreated Xerophthalmia, Kerotomalacia and complete blindness might occur since Vitamin A is highly needed in phototransduction (Gurmu et. al., 2014).

Vitamin A deficiency is the leading cause of preventable childhood blindness.
Approximately 250,000 to 500,000 malnourished children in developing countries including Nigeria go blind each year as a result of Vitamin A deficiency. Blindness due to Vitamin A deficiency is also high in pregnant women in developing countries including Nigeria (Gurmu et. al., 2014).

Vitamin A deficiency also diminishes the ability to fight infections in countries where children are not readily immunised. Infectious diseases like measles and chicken pox may cause high fatality among children. It is known to claim the lives of approximately 670,000 children under the age of 5 annually.  The major cause of Vitamin A deficiency is as a result of dietary problems. In developing countries there is low intake of food rich in Vitamin A.
 A large, 180-gram sweet potato cooked with its skin provides about 1,730 micrograms of vitamin A. The institute of Medicines food And Nutrition Board advises that an adult man need 900microgram of Vitamin A daily while women require only 700micrograms, this means that a large potato can supply all the needed amount of Vitamin A in the body.

Vitamin A deficiency due to lack of enough vitamin A in diet can be treated by including a good amount of sweet potato in one’s regular diet.

Fertility

Of all the vitamins that are essential for daily body functions, Vitamin A is said to be the most important as far as fertility is concerned. Vitamin A increases and improves Cervical Mucus. Cervical Mucus helps protect the sperm on their journey to meet the egg. Vitamin A not only increases Cervical Mucus but also helps it become more nourishing and healthy for the sperm.
Vitamin A also plays an important role in the growth of follicles where it helps the follicle grow and mature properly, it also assists the follicle in producing the hormones needed in aiding the fertilized egg into the uterus.

As established above, sweet potato is highly rich in beta-carotene which the body converts to vitamin A. women suffering from infertility are highly advised to increase their intake of sweet potato due to is high content of Vitamin A.


Immunity

Foods rich in beta-carotene are known to supplement the body’s immune system. Sweet potato is high in beta-carotene and is known to boost the immune system of the body. Beta-carotene facilitates communication between neighbouring cells by stimulating the synthesis of proteins that form pores in cell membranes, allowing communication through the exchange of small molecules. Some clinical trials have found that beta-carotene supplementation improves various parameters of immune function such as increasing the number of white blood cells and the activities of natural killer cells.  The consumption of purple sweet potato leaves was able to modulate T lymphocyte functions and activities of natural killer cells and anti-body production in a study involving 16 different humans (Chen et. al., 2011).

Vitamin C helps maintain tissues and speeding up wound healing, and over all boasting of immune functions. It is scientifically proven that people with common diseases have lower vitamin c in their blood stream. A deficiency of vitamin C broadly affects the various key aspects of immune function, which include the innate system and adaptive system of the immune system. A deficiency of vitamin C can have wide-ranging impact on the immune system leaving us vulnerable to many infections. A weakened immune system caused by low vitamin C levels can make any infection more serious. One of the most important functions of vitamin C is to support and energize the body’s immune system.

Since the human body does not produce vitamin C, it must be obtained from outside-the body sources. The immune system can be improved by supplementing it with vitamin C. The recommended daily allowance of vitamin C is 90mg. Sweet potatoes are rich in vitamin C and one can get as high as 26.4mg of vitamin C per 100g of sweet potato.

SWEET SIDE OF SWEET POTATO part2

REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF SWEET POTATOE IN NIGERIA

The distribution of sweet potatoes in Nigeria is not to the precise via geo-reference data. (Huachho and Hijmans, 2000) estimated a global distribution of areas solely devoted for sweet potato cultivation by assigning national data from various sources to sub-nation unit.

 The tuber and Root Information System (TRIS) developed by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) took a different approach for sweet potato and to an extent yams and cassava by modeling the physical parameters which estimates an ordinal suitability ranking for each crop across Africa. This simply means rankings or the distribution of sweet potato is determined by a combination of factors that includes, annual rainfall, soil classes, temperature, length of growing period etc.  Using this model in estimating sweet potato distribution in Nigeria shows that highest cultivation of sweet potato occurs in the ‘”Middle Belt” region (Tewe et. al., 2001) while a broad range of the country is taken into consideration approximately 7⁰ to 11⁰ north.

 This indicated that sweet potato traditionally been grown in a few restricted areas of the central and southeastern zones which might have been centers of concentration in time past. In recent years sweet potato has become a widespread crop in Nigeria.

Preliminary surveys  shows an estimate indicating average yields in Nigeria to be 7 tons per hectare  in the Southeast while there is a reduction of about  3 tons per hectare  towards the North. This reduction does not hold everywhere in the North since there is an exception towards the centrally placed Plateau and Bauchi states. At these places the yields are usually about 7 – 8 tons per hectare. (Tewe et. al., 2001).  Several states of the south and central regions of Nigeria (Oyo, Benue, Plateau, Taraba, Kogi and Cross Rivers) are also areas where sweet potato is widely grown (Eneji et. al., 1997). While in the North, cultivation of sweet potato extends by their estimates far north towards Kaduna and Bauchi states.

In Nigeria, sweet potato farming is determined by largely on season rain. The best crop yields generally occurs in areas of 750 milliters(mm) to 1,000(mm) annual precipitation, with at least 500militeres of rain during the growing season (Tewe et. al., 2001).

In Nigeria planting takes place from February through July in the central to southern regions where rainfall is most plentiful. Still, in the central and northern regions of the country, planting along river banks or in swampy area can prolong the season and permit planting by September to December.

NUTRITIONAL CONTENT OF SWEET POTATO
(100g)(3.50z)
Energy:               37kJ(90kcal)
Carbohydrates: 207g
Starch: 705g
Sugars:     65g
Dietary fiber:      33g
Fat:     0.15g
Protein:   20g

VITAMINS PRESENT IN 100g(3.5oz)
Vitamin A equivalent:   961ug
Thiamine:   0.11mg
Ribolavin(B2):  0.11mg
Nacin(B3):   15mg
VitaminB6:   0.29mg
Folate(B9):   6ug
Vitamin C:  196mg
VitaminE:  0.71mg

MINERALS PRESENT IN 100g(3.50z)
Calcium : 38mg
Iron: 0.69mg
Magnesuim: 27mg
Manganese: 0.5mg
Phosphorus: 54mg
Potassium: 475mg
Sodium: 36mg
Zinc 0.32
Source: Wikipedia

Beside simple starch, raw sweet potatoes are rich in complex carbohydrate, dietary fiber and beta carotene(beta-carotene is a Provitamin A carotenoid). There is also a moderate content of other micronutrient including vitaminB5, vitaminB6 and Manganese etc. Interestingly when cooked by baking there is always a slight change in the variables of these micronutrient, example is the increase in density of vitamin C.

Sweet potato cultivars with dark orange flesh have more beta-carotene than those with light-colored flesh. This type of potato cultivar is being encouraged in Africa where Vitamin A deficiency is a serious problem. A 2012 study of 10,000 households in Uganda found that children eating beta-carotene enriched sweet potatoes suffered less vitamin A deficiency than those not consuming as much beta carotene.

THE EMPIRE OF kANEM (The second empire of the Kanuri kingdom of Kanem part 2)

Idris Alooma made functional and easy to attain military policies. He extended the Sefawa power over the Kanuri empire. He also sought to expand the kingdom of Bornu. The majority of wealth flowing into the empire came through plunder and tribute from conquered lands.

Idris Alooma also controlled trade routes to North Africa giving him a healthy monopoly. He began a steady campaign which united all semi-independent states within Bornu into a united Islamic state.

 He led wars against anti-Islamic states. An example of such state was The Tetala which fell into the hands of Bornu's marching army. The Kotoko people aided Bornu's army  as they drove The Tetala towards lake Chad. Idris Alooma's victories in war includes subjugating the people of Ngizim located Southwest of his empire, crushing of Marghi's rebellion and the forcing of Mandara to restore a deposed ruler and accepting his overlordship.

At the height of his power he led his forces against the kingdom of Kano. The campaign against Kano was so successful that only Dala stronghold remained untouched. Kano's defeat allowed Idris to lead his army across Hausaland exacting tributes from the conquered lands.

The armies of Idris Alooma met a strong resistance which halted the expansion of Bornu for sometime. The Bulala people of Kanem and Tuareg of Air stood in the way of Idris Alooma. The successful halting of the rampaging Bornu soldiers lay in the inability to keep up water supply and the enemy’s refusal to engage in a decisive battle.

Idris reverted to espionage and he sort to usurp the sultan Ahb Al-Jelil by supporting his rival. The sultan a strong enemy of Bornu also had interest in expansion. In fact he tried to annex towns on Bornu-Kanem border which were then under the control of Bornu. Idris Alooma led several campaigns against the sultan, he also tried diplomacy before he brought the sultan to his knees. As punishment  Bornu annexed part of Kanem ruled by Abd Al-Jelil.

The control of the trade route to North Africa caused a power tussle between Bornu and The Tuareg. To show his determination Idris led his army against Bilma an important salt producing center. Bilma situated on the Trans-Saharan  route was an important market center, Idris Army occupied this center. It took a few years before the determined Bornu soldiers and their Arab mercenaries defeated The Tuareg, Idris Alooma became their overlord.

Idris Alooma a devote Muslim laid great emphasis on religious adherence. He forbade taking of Muslim slaves from conquered lands. He also ensured his army prayer at the usual prayer times even on the march. He built burnt brick mosques throughout his empire. He placed Kanem-Bornu under Sharia law.By his death Islam had already taken a foothold on Bornu. Idris Alooma brought military and civil success to the kingdom of Bornu.

SWEET SIDE OF SWEET POTATO part1

INTRODUCTION
( WHAT IS SWEET POTATO?)

Ipomoea batatas L. commonly known as Sweet potato is a dicotyledonous plant belonging to the family Convolvulaceae. It is a sweet tasting, starchy tuberous root that is edible. The young shoots and leaves can also be eaten. The sweet potato belongs to the order Solanales.

 Ipomea batatas is a perennial vine that usually bears heart shaped or palmate leaves and its flowers are sympetalous (Williams et. al., 1968). The tuberous root which is edible varies in shape but are usually long and tapered. The skin is smooth and can be orange, red, yellow, purple, brown, and beige in color depending on the variety. The sweet potato cultivars bearing white or yellow skin are less sweat and moist than those with red, pink or orange skin.
 
The Origin of Ipomoea batatas is one shrouded in mystery. Some believe it originated in Central America while some believe it came from South America. It is well know that as early as 5000 years ago, Ipomoea batatas was domesticated in Central America. While some sources dates some remnants of Ipomoea batatas as far back 8000BC. These remnants were found in Peru in South America.

It is also postulated that the Origin of I. batatas might have been between the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico and the mouth of the Onrinoco River in Venezuela. It is believed I. batatas spread from here to the Caribbean and South America about 2500BC.

It is also known that sweet potato was grown in Polynesia as early as 1000 AD, this was before the arrival of western exploration. It has been radiocarbon-dated in the cook islands of Polynesia to 1000 AD according to Wikipedia. Before its wide spread into Europe, Christopher Columbus brought sweet potato from South Americas on his return to Spain from his first voyage in 1492 (Purseglove, 1968)

SWEET POTATO IN AFRICA
 Not much is known about the spread of sweet potato to Africa. It is believed that during the 1500s, 1600s, and 1700s, Spanish traders and Portuguese mariners brought sweet potato to North Africa where they traded it off for other wares and this trend was later continued by other Europeans It then spread from North Africa into other regions of the continent (Huntington, 1997). It was also during these times that a great awakening of the knowledge of sweet potato began. I. batatas spread to China, India, Philippians and much of the Oriental world where it became a main delicacy.


SWEET POTATO CULTIVATION
Sweet potatoes are cultivated throughout tropical and warm temperate regions of the world. They are found or grown in areas among these regions where there is sufficient water to support their growth and survival.

In Africa the crop is well established in areas having humid condition. They are predominantly found from the coast of Guinea Bissau across West Africa and the Congo Basin, to the high lands of East Africa and farther East and South, including Madagascar.

I. batatas grows best under much sunshine and warm nights and are known to be frost sensitive. Ideal pH for growth is between 5.8 and 6.2, although they will tolerate a more acidic pH up to 5.0. Annual rainfalls of 750-1000mm (30-39 in) are considered suitable, with a minimum of 500mm (20 in) during the growing season. Ipomea batatas is very sensitive to drought and thus will not sprout in dry soil, it is also sensitive to water logging, as this might cause the tuber to rot and also a reduction of growth of storage roots if aeration is poor.

Sweet potato matures between 90 to 170 days depending on the variety of the cultivar and the conditions available. They are usually propagated by stem, root cuttings or by adventitious shoots known as “slips” that grow out from the tuberous roots during storage. They have few natural enemies and thus can be grown in different farming condition with success.

They can be grown in poor soil with less fertilizer. However, they are very sensitive to aluminum toxicity and will die at about six weeks if the soil is left untreated with lime. Sweet Potato can be grown with little weeding since the rapidly growing vines shade out weeds. The pesticide DCPA, also known as Dacathal is commonly used in killing weeds.

In Africa, including Nigeria, sweet potato cultivation is majorly seen among subsistence farms. These farms cultivate the plant on small farms and are focused mainly on providing food for their families. In most countries including Nigeria, sweet potato cultivation is not only locally concentrated (Huccaho and Hijmans, 2000).

In 1994, the United Nations and Agricultural Organization (FAO) estimated that sweet potato cultivation in Nigeria covers an area of 69,000 hectares. This estimate had increased to over 500,000 in 2003 (FAOSTAT,2004).