FORGOTTEN MIRACLES (A look into Africa's rich herbs and food part3)

FORGOTTEN MIRACLES continues with more exposition on how the older African generations survived to old age.  We shall take a look at certain herbal preparations that proved its efficacy in treating certain diseases.

Diabetes: Though little was known about this health condition decades ago,  however the older African generations prepared various medications which helped  manage and in some cases revert the conditions causing excess glucose in the blood. We now know the  blood can contain much insulin yet body cells may fail to utilize them in regulating blood sugar level. To the older generations, diabetes proved deadly no matter the type, of which they were oblivious.

Bitterleaf proved  its worth in managing diabetes. The herbal preparation required a mixture of bitter leaf juice and honey. The medication is taken two spoonful daily. Another herbal preparation for diabetes involve the use of paw paw. The fruit is first peeled then soaked for three days. One glass of the resulting water is taken three times daily. The third herbal medication for diabetes involve both Guava and scent leaf. The leaves of both plants are extracted and concocted, the concoction has immediate effect on the body glucose level.

Ulcer:  This health condition occurs when there are sores on the linings of the stomach. It is usually painful requiring quick relieves most times. Herbal preparations for this ailment was a priority ages ago because of sharp pain and discomfort associated with the condition.

The bark of Sugar cane is removed and cut into pieces. The pieces soaked in water for three days after which a glass of the water is taken three times a day.

Hypertension: This health condition is mockingly called the old man's company because it sets in as one ages. No matter how peaceful a community,  certain isolated incidents can lead to increase blood pressure among individuals of the community.  Africa's older generations had their fair share of the illness however they made provisions needed for its effective management.

Fresh leaves of waterleaf cut into pieces and then soaked for two days were effectively used in the management of hypertension. Half a glass of the liquid is taken twice before meal. Avocado leaves and Xylopia aethiopica were also used in preparation of potent medicine for hypertension.

Arthritis: In the previous parts of Forgotten Miracles we pointed out how  older generations were able to walk miles with great stamina and agility despite their age. Arthritis may not be very common among them but it does occur. Fruits of Xylopia aethiopica  and bitter leaf are mixed and ground, the paste is applied on the affected areas.

Cholera: This is common in Africa and for ages traditional medications has been used in kicking back the disease. The processed seeds of locust  bean are chewed by the patient, the extracted juice is then swallowed.

Whitlow: The treatment of Whitlow required the use of latex from paw paw plant. The latex is applied on the affected area daily, this causes the Whitlow to open leading to healing. Similar healing effect is also achieved by the use of lemon. A lemon fruit is cut open and a hole large enough to accommodate the affected finger is drilled. The affected finger is then inserted into the hole.

Yellow Fever: This is a viral infection common to Africa. The diseases is spread by an infected mosquito, the insect most at home in the tropics. This diseases has been around in Africa for a long time, each generation before the present one  had herbal mixtures specifically prepared for treating yellow fever. The symptoms of this disease including headache, fever, jaundice vomiting, muscle pain, nausea and fatigue. Coming across an infected person may be common in certain parts of Africa however succumbing to it is rare.

African peach, a plant highly medicinal has been used for ages in treating yellow fever. The root of the plant is soaked in water for three days, then the water is taken thrice daily.

Pile: This health condition results from swollen hemorrhoids inside the anus. It is very common in Nigeria. Pile is among health conditions widely and commonly treated using traditional medications. There are many different herbal preparations used in treating pile with resounding success. The powdered root of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides  and juice of scent leaves are taken twice a day for one week. This treatment also helps in easing the pain until full recovery is attained. Another herbal preparation effective in treating pile is the use of lizard eggs. Four table spoons of palm oil are heated till a color change is noticed. Three lizard eggs are added to the oil and allowed to boil till they burst. The oil is brought down from the fire and stirred  till uniform mixture is achieved. The mixture is applied on the tip of the protruding anal part. The treatment continues for a week.

FORGOTTEN MIRACLES (A look into Africa's rich herbs and food part2)

FORGOTTEN MIRACLES continues as we explore the traditional way of eating and the foods eaten.

Banana

Igbo: unele
Hausa : Ayaba
Yoruba: Ọ̀gẹ̀dẹ̀ wẹ́wẹ́
Zulu: Ibhanana
Swahili: Ndizi
Oromo: muuzii
Akan: kwadu

Banana has been around for centuries now. It is a delicacy enjoyed by both old and young. In Africa it is hard to see one who does not enjoy the fruit. The fruit in time past was served with different other fruits creating a combination with  great health benefits. These combinations often supplied a good amount of nutrients ordinarily the body might not get through regular dishes. One example of such serving is groundnut and banana, both complementing each other nutritionally. Ground provides a good protein pack while banana throws in vitamins and minerals, all not denatured through extensive heating.

Banana has a good nutrient pack especially vitamins and minerals. Its content includes carbohydrates, protein, fats, vitamins, dietary fiber, iron, magnesium, potassium, manganese, phosphorus, zinc. Banana  has a nice energy value and thus a good number of fingers can keep the body charged for hours.

Maybe unknown to the Africans of old, banana is anti-depressant. It was  hardly heard suicide surfaced regularly within older African generations. Depression is at the top of causes of suicide and while the western world’s older generation viewed suicide an escape route, Africans of the same generation hardly contemplated suicide. What we eat define us, though we might not scientifically link low suicide number in Africa to food, we still know scientifically food plays a role in mood swing.

Banana play critical role in regulating bowel movement. It also regulates blood pressure thus reducing risks leading to stroke. We might think precolonial Africans were relatively happy having no worrisome issues. The truth is the reverse. There were tons of problems to deal with such as protecting settlements from invaders and slave raiders, unfavorable climatic conditions relative to crops out in farms. The book Things Fall Apart listed a few things potent enough to induce worrying. Okonkwo kept worrying about his son's unmanly behaviors, he worried about Ikemefuna after he was murdered and when the white men came worries doubled. Eating right and natural played a very critical role in decreasing blood pressure leading to overall healthy body.

Men bent while working hard for long hours is a common view in old Africa, this might be a catalyst to European interest in slave trade. Long hours of work require stronger bones. Banana offer a great deal of minerals required in bone strengthening. Banana is an instant energy giving food. Older generations must have taken breaks from farm work to snack on it thereby rejuvenating the body’s spent energy. It is also a healthy brain food capable of reducing menstrual pain. It also protects against ulcer.

CUCUMBER

Igbo: kukumba
Hausa: kakamba
Yoruba: kọkunba
Swahili: tango
Zulu: ikhukhamba

The crunchy fruit nutritional content afforded the plant a lot of possibilities. It is a fact that Africans of old walked miles and miles to farms and remote markets. They do these everyday of the week while in some cases three to five times each week. The mileage covered is a great way of exercising while requiring strong joints for such daily tasking.  Cucumber provides excellent bone strengthening properties leading to reduction of arthritis occurrence. Another way the fruit helps keep arthritis away is through its ability to aid weight loss. Obesity is a major health issue in America and Europe, however the disease is gaining pace in different parts of Africa. The major causes of Obesity in Africa are the increase dependence on unhealthy processed foods and reduction in mobility due to increase in car ownership. While these two factors were minimal or even absent decades ago, a return to healthier foods such as cucumber can help weight reduction.

Modern science suggets cucumber might be very helpful in dealing with stress. Some phytochemicals found in the vegetable may help keep stress related diseases  away.

Cucumber protects the digestive system. It is a high alkaline food capable of providing adequate protection to body cells. An interesting finding  on cucumber centers on the health of the kidney as one ages. The kidney tasked with regulating blood pH slowly relinquishes this ability as one ages. Most of the foods available are more acidic than cucumber thus stressing an aged kidney. Cucumber may provide the needed aid in increasing the pH of the blood. Also a three year study according to  Dawson-Hughes B, Harris SS, and Ceglia L. in the article Alkaline diets favor lean tissue mass in older adults found in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. (2008; 87(3):662-665.) showed a reduction in aging and wastage of muscles linked to cucumber intake.

Cucumber protects the brain from slow degeneration. Alzheimer disease though common in western countries of the world has failed to take footing among Africans. The number of sufferers of the disease is low and even lower decades ago. Cucumber contains many phytochemicals which protects brain cells as one ages.

WATERMELON

Zulu: ikhabe
Xhosa: ujodo
Igbo: anyụ
Hausa: guna
Yoruba: elegede

Watermelon is native to Africa originating primarily from west Africa. The fruit has been around for ages. From the plates of ancient Egyptians to the City states of the old Hausa kingdoms the fruit dominated the dishes of old. This is not surprising since watermelon contain a high amount of water and a good source of rehydrating the body.
The fruit contains carbohydrates, Vitamins, proteins, calcium, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, zinc.

Watermelon has anti-inflammatory properties. It contains compounds that probably play different roles in reduction of cancer risks. There are studies suggesting watermelon may help decrease the risk of tumor growth. Again we see another plant which plays a role in protecting and strengthening of  muscles. We have established the fact what we eat defines our overall health. It takes good energy and healthy muscles to survive under the blistering sun in Africa for long hours tending the fields. A poor diet will spell doom for such worker in the field since the body lacked essentials and energy required for such conditions. The present African generation lack the stamina to survive for short periods in the fields. Only a small percentage might still garner up strength similar to those the older generations exhibited.

Watermelon provides protection not only for muscles but for the skin also. Though we might say Africa today posses more radiant skins yet at what cost. The inflow of creams of different chemical formulations into African markets can provide a superficially glimmer on the skin but below this the skin suffers. Watermelon provided the older generations better radiant skin and also protection from the harsh Ultra violet rays of the skin. It is worthy to note that these men spent hours under the fierce bite of the sun in open fields laboring yet their skin never lost its beauty to diseases.

Watermelon also provides Specific benefits to the heart. It contains various compounds which help keep the heart healthy. Lycopene found in watermelon can help lower blood pressure and also contributes to the well-being of the heart.

FORGOTTEN MIRACLES (A look into Africa's rich herbs and food part1)

The story grandparents tell portray an African community of real aged men. Men whose hair are grey with age and wisdom. Though bent with age, the men of those days took care of themselves without much help from their relatives. The story of 85 year old men in time past actively participating in farm work pervades all African society. This picture though unbelievable by today’s standards was the truth in African communities many decades ago. Today the present generation gape when they see a 90 year old man or woman, how come such decay? China and Japan have high rate of aged people of outstanding age because of high acceptance of traditional medicine and foods. They kept the knowledge of herbs and nutritional foods safe passing it from generations to generations. Africa was not short of foods, medicinal herbs and plants in the past however much of the knowledge on how to use them is lost. Sparrowlite will be looking at these plants in the series  forgotten mirracles.

Avocado pear. 
Igbo : Ube bekee.
Swahili : Parachichi
Yoruba : piha onyibo
Zulu: ukwatapheya
Oromo: abukaadoo
Shona: yekotapeya

 Avocado pear is a non-native plant . It was brought to Africa during pre colonial days where it took a strong root among both young and old. In the past, fruits of avocado were served in Africa as snack or whole meal .
 Avocado is super packed with nutrients such as caloris, potassium, sodium, dietary fibre, magnesium, vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin K, vitamin B6, B3, B1, phosphorus, folate, carbohydrates, protein, iron, zinc

A food is said to be balanced diet when it contains all the essential nutrients. cleverly called Heaven's gift, Avocado is the best of the best in terms of nutritional package. The coming of Europeans afforded our fathers the chance of adding healthy foods to their already healthy recipes. Eaten alone, the fruit sustains one easily because of its high fibre content and at the same time supplies a good value of essentials. Avocado is packed with more potassium than banana revered for its potassium content. Potassium is highly needed in the body for many of its processes. Blood pressure, water level and many electricity dependant processes in the body rely on certain potassium concentration to function properly. Did I tell you potassium is needed for nerve coordination? Oh yes! Impulses moving around your body require potassium. Avocado contain 35% calcium more than banana. Avocado helps decrease accelerated aging. Old men still waxing strong was once a common view in Africa, however this trend is shifting towards the left due to increase acceptance of processed foods. Avocado is packed with anti-oxidants which help maintain the body immune system. It contains oleic acid which makes it a food for the heart.
Avocado can be served in so many ways  without compromising its nutrient package.

SCENT LEAF
Igbo: nchuanwu
Hausa: daidoya
Yoruba:effirin
Zulu: Iboza
Akan: Nunum

The plant is native to Africa. It is an essential ingredient in many dishes of Western Africa. The reliance on this plant in cooking many western African dishes stemmed not only because of its enticing aroma and taste but also for its potency as a drug. Scent leaf was used for many ailments with proven efficacy in the past. Then it was solely relied upon in the olden days due to the yet to surface state of modern medicine.The use of scent leaf recorded infinitesimal cases of side effects.

African fathers of old knew the right dosage for every ailments requiring scent leaf. A little of this knowledge is retained today though its disappearance is certain unless documentation is taken serious.

The plant contains carbohydrates, sodium, potassium, iron, zinc, vitamin C, manganese, phosphorus, flavonoids, tannins, sapronins, phenolics, alkaloids, fibre.

The importance of scent leaf can not be over emphasized since it has proven its worth since the earliest documented history of Africa. Scent leaf has anti-bacteria and anti-fungal properties. The plant steamed for few minutes is used in treating catarrh. The patient is held over the steam under a blanket in a way he inhales the scent leaf steam as he breathes. This medication is practiced among the Igbo people in Nigeria and the process was superficially described in Chinua Achebe's 'Things Fall Apart'.  Scent leaf reliefs catarrh in quicker time once inhaled as steam. Another well known medication involving scent leaf is the treatment of stomach disorder. The juice is also used for treating cholera, stomach pain and diarrhea. The use of the plant for this purpose is not restricted to Africa. In eastern Imphal villages in Manipur Asia, the plant is used in different medicinal preparations for treatment of stomach disorders.

In many homes in villages across Africa, scent leaf  serve as an insect repellent with high efficiency. In these homes the plant majorly serves as mosquito repellent.

One of the major uses of the plant during the old days was in malaria treatment. The plant juice is extracted by squeezing the leaves and then taken. However it is worthy to note that most times for such cases the plant juice was blended with the juice of other plants such as Gongronema latifolium before ingested. Malaria though prevalent in those days  close to 90% of West African forests thrived, the indigenous people survived easily. A comparison of health status of those days and that of today can be deduced from the sudden deaths of early west African European settlers. What sustained the natives were medicinal leaves and herbs of which scent leaf proved important in treating malaria.

There are many preparations of scent leaf for medicinal purposes.
The plant scent leaf was also utilized as an anti-convulsant. The practice of squeezing the juice of scent leaf into the mouth and face of a convulsing child is still in use today in many parts of Africa especially in Nigeria. Another medication involving scent leaf that lived to this day is its use in child delivery. The plant is used by midwives to cure a newborn baby's cord. The plant is first crushed or squeezed and then placed over the cut cord to facilitate quick healing and also as an antiseptic. The antiseptic properties of the plant was well utilized by older people in western Africa for cleaning of wounds and for treating skin related diseases such as ringworm.

PINEAPPLE
Igbo: Ọkwụrụ bekee
Hausa : àbàrbáá
Yoruba: ope oyinbo
 Zulu: uphayinaphu
Swahili: mananasi

Apart from the sweet juice people look for nothing else in pineapple. Even among the juice lovers a good percentage is allergic to the berry. Many people know little about the other uses of pineapple apart from its refreshing juice. Clearly few with this knowledge grew close to their fathers and grandfathers.

The berry is highly nutritive containing carbohydrates, protein, vitamins, calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, zinc an high water content. The leaves of pineapple serve as anti-helminth medication. Fresh juice of  the berry is used in the treatment of indigestion. To an extent the juice is used to treat  cough. Pineapple is also effective in treating gastric irritability and jaundice.

A very interesting fact is the use of the plant as an abortifacient especially the green unripe fruit. Traditionally it is used to induce mensuration or abortion. Another interesting fact is the effect of pineapple on bone growth. Traditionally the plant has proven the test of time satisfying both thirst and nutritional needs of Africans.

THE BENIN WALL(The wall greater than China's great Wall)

The great Wall of China built across the Northern borders of China has drawn visitors from far and near. The wall built in the 7th century BC covered an area of 21,196 km and can be seen from space. This magnificent protective edifice was not the only one to tower across a vast land area. The ancient Benin kingdom occupied the area now known as western Nigeria built a like wall.

The need for a wall is to deter invaders allowing the defenders either enough time to organize their army or to evacuate the city. The size of the wall can be used to determine the level of civilization and the population of a kingdom. Large scale construction means the civilization has enough manpower and resources for such expensive task.

The building of this great Wall in Benin began sometime in 800AD. The growth in the kingdom's population required a stronger fortification. The wall was constructed using ramparts combined with moats, it stretched over an area of about 9,900 miles. Dikes were dug in the inner area and the earth removed was used in building the outer wall. The entire wall was constructed as a system of dikes and large mounds of earth protected from rain and nature by thatches, leaves and other plant materials placed on the top. It took over 600 years for the wall to be completed. Just like the walls of China was not even in height, the Benin wall had a peak height of about 20meters in some areas. At such height invaders found it a daunting task climbing over the wall. Areas of the wall not so tall was steep, invaders were easily picked out by arrowis or spears before they can laboriously reach the wall's summit.

According to Fred Pearce, the Benin wall took about 150 million hours of digging during construction. He also said the building of  the wall required more materials than the great pyramid of Cheop in Egypt. The Benin wall was four times longer than the great Wall of China.

The Benin kingdom saw the rise of many great kings (Obas) during her powerful days. The Obas between AD 800 and into the 15th century made series of contributions to the wall. Oba Oguola who ruled Benin around 1280 to 1295 made the first large scale contribution to the wall. Oba Ewuare is considered by many as the greatest ruler of Benin kingdom. He commissioned and completed  3200km length of the entire 16,000km wall.

The wall allowed nine points of entry while sentries kept watch on the wall. Enemies were seen before they reached the wall thus buying time for soldiers to be organized and dispatched.
The large outer wall was not the only one constructed. smaller walls were constructed within the city to protect the palace and administrative buildings.
The Benin kingdom at this time was amongst the most fortified places on Earth. Such was the fortifications that any who approached her doors must first get permission from soldiers guarding the walls and gates. This means that all who came and left were processed.

There was peace within the wall. The wall proved important in preventing not only invaders but slave raiders roaming Africa at this time. It protected the people until the British destroyed most of the wall 1897  during the punitive expedition, a testament of the ills Africa, her identity and cultures suffered in the hands of Britain.

Abubakri III, The African king who reached America before Christopher Columbus.

In 1492 Columbus and his crew reached America. Europe went frenzy when he came back with report of a shinning land. This was it, Europe officially reached America. Popular history left clues suggesting Columbus might not be the first person outside America to set foot on the continent. The Norsemen of Europe left traces of habitation at Newfoundland, suggesting a Norse community existed in America some 500 years before the famed Columbus voyage.

Prior to Columbus another voyage reached America, this time the sailors came from Mali. King Abubakri II, the ninth Mansa of the Malian empire ruled when the empire was at the height of its wealth and strength. Abubakri II was an intelligent man, he loved mysteries and one that baffled him most was the end of the Atlantic ocean.

 The Mansa spent his lazy hours contemplating what lay beyond the Atlantic ocean. The king needed to do something to surpass the names of his great ancestors, especially Sundiata himself. This was his chance to cure boredom and surpass his current worth.

 At this time the empire of Mali was sufficiently rich, rich enough to support an expedition across the Atlantic. He began a meticulous plan to sail across the Atlantic to find whatever lies there. He enlisted the best sailors Africa boasted of, he sought the best ship builders and engineers of the time and then enlisted hundreds of navigators.

When the entire flotilla proved ready, the great King came down to the port town of Niang and addressed the fleet one last time. The flotilla carried rich presents of gold and enough provisions to last months. Their order was to find what lies at the other side of the Ocean.

This first expedition proved catastrophic. The whole flotilla except a few sailors made it back to Mali failing to reach their goal. The Emperor did not find the news amusing. He devoted a lot of physical and mental strength the past months to give up. This time the Mansa will sail with the rest. More ships were built with better enhancements. Gold presents larger than the ones the first voyage carried were assembled.

Before the voyage began Mansa Abubakri III gave the throne to Mansa Musa who later became the most famous of all Malian Mansa'. This time the fleet reached America led by the richest African emperor of the age. Apart from the gifts the fleet engaged in trade with the red Indians. The mingling of both cultures led to exchange of relics. The African figurines left behind by the visitors serve as evidence of African presence in America before the coming of Columbus. Also monuments were erected in honor of the African visitors years before Columbus arrived America.

Though our great Mansa never returned to Mali, African interest in America continued to foster for many years. Trade continued between the red Indians and Malian Madingos until the fall of Malian empire. During this time the Europeans were gaining foothold in America, such European success led to annihilation of so many Indian villages reducing there openness and contact with outside world. The glorious days of glorious contact with the other side of the Atlantic ocean came to a close.
According to Ivan Van Sertima , there is an enormous prove of African contact with the red Indians of America many years before the so called Columbus expedition. It is clear Malians reached the now highly beloved American continent many centuries ago, however they were not the first to reach the continent. The Norsemen, Chinese and Japanese probably reached America before the Malians did.  Columbus made mention of the native stories of African gold merchants in his journal. The American native told of  rich African merchants arriving in boats filled with gold.

                   Afro-Olmec excavated in America
Carvings of African priests on walls during the Columbian Augustine culture are found in America. The collosal Olmec stone heads excavated in America bore African resemblance, another prove of an African-indian contact. Sure, Columbus took over from the success of others.

Afro-Olmec excavated in America

The Atlantis of Africa ( The Nok civilization).

The renowned lost city of Atlantis is a well known discussion among archeologists, divers, occults and the world at large. The city of Atlantis located on an island whose pinpoint location is still a debate is believed to have exceeded the civilization of its time at all angles. Without warning some mysterious fate befell the majestic civilization, everything went under the sea and became lost to time.
Some distance from the present day Kaduna city and stretching into Jos in Nigeria (covering about 30,000 miles) lies the African version of Atlantis. One might argue a difference exists between the European Atlantis and African Atlantis since the later was not lost to the sea.

British archaeologist Bernard Fagg, beginning in 1943 spent years in Taruga village discovering terracotta artifacts of different types. His extensive work may be the only means of getting a glimpse of what this civilization was like. Fagg conducted soil analysis of the area where these terracotta artifacts were excavated, the result placed a civilization 2518 years ago at the location. Having a civilization in the area at such age (500BC) did not prove too much surprise rather later discoveries surprised all.

The art involved in the level of expertise in terracotta making was too advanced, more advance for people of that age living in the Taruga region. Apart from Egypt's rapid advancement in arts, archeologists and the world at large believed Africa's civilization happened very slowly. The terracotta arts were well carved with baked earth, the art splendid and more advanced than any in East or central Europe except a few of the time.

Another discovery which got Fagg more amazed were iron furnaces. These furnaces proved the ancient Nok civilization knew iron and excellently worked with iron. It is now clear the ancient Nok people were skilled blacksmiths and artisans. Fagg deduced after careful observation that the civilization must have boasted enough population to support such advancement in  art. Fagg went ahead to make more discoveries, some of the terracotta artifacts were arranged or placed in a way suggesting worship. Most of these carvings are now seen as objects of worship. Fagg concluded using found clues such as iron smelting, arts and religion,a thriving society well advanced once flourished in the northern part of Nigeria especially the area surrounding Taruga and Samun Dukiya areas. In his own writing he wrote "It was the product of a mature tradition,............with the probability of a long antecedent history, of which as yet, no trace has been found." Fagg was greatly intrigued by his findings that he wrote strongly about the lost civilization of Africa.
 The bell he rang drew more archeologists to the site and more discoveries were made. Apart from ancient Egypt, the Nok civilization was a towering one in sculpturing. The ancient Nok civilization also excelled in tool making especially those requiring iron. If we look at the process development of ironworks, there is a chain of learning. The use of iron and iron tools were introduced to other regions of Africa from North Africa progressively. The discovery of Ironworks wrought as early as 500BC in areas the Nok civilization once stood suggests West Africa independently began blacksmiths (There might have been an exception on the movement of iron from North Africa to other parts of Africa). We can come to the conclusion West Africa had skilled and intelligent populace centuries ago.

Agriculture thrived  during the Nok civilization. Grain might have been the chief crop due to adverse climatic conditions of Northern Nigerian. Less annual rainfall allowed for cultivation of drought resistant crops such as millet and cow pea. They planted fruit trees and harvested the fruits during harvest seasons.

The excavated figures certainly shows what everyday Nok citizen might have looked like. The well folded-hair designs of female Nok head may suggest elaborate interest in beauty and hair-making. Some of the figures were adorned with well made necklaces and beads. These are pointers to the fact the Nok society embraced beauty as a fundamental aspect of their society.

Like Atlantis, the sudden decline and demise of this once prosperous civilization remain a mystery. We are left to imagine a cause likely not to be known.  The Nok civilization which thrived about 2518 years ago left only artifacts as evidences of a once prosperous nation.

These discoveries made were halted for a time due to the sudden abandoning of the site. The area which once sparked curiosity was left unattended rather looters and criminals continued the excavation. They sold whatever came out of the ground to black marketers, this is a testament of Africa's irresponsible leaders. Many terracotta from this region have been illegally shipped to other countries. Many are found in world renowned museums were they are illegally placed on display especially in Britain.

THE LITTLE KNOWN WAR (THE ARO-ANGLO WAR OF 1901-1902)

Little is said about the Anglo-Aro war of the 19th century. Only a few Nigerians including the people of Eastern Nigeria where the war occurred know about this struggle that lasted nearly half a year (November 1901- March 1902).

The Aro people are found in the ancient kingdom of Arochukwu in present day Abia state. The Aros are situated on the west bank of Cross river near Itu. Tradition has it that non-Igbos were once the lords of the area until a revolt from Igbo settlers defeated and took the lands from their land lords. The Ibibio-Aro war of  17th century ended with the defeat of the Ibibios by the Aro migrants. It was also believed the Oracle Ibini Opkabe (their most potent Deity) played a central role in the coming to power of the Igbo settlers and their subsequent progress. The Arochukwu (meaning voice of God) drew the name from strong affinity to fetish ways, of which the oracle Ibini Okpabe played a vital role.

The Aros formed a strong alliance with her neighbors. The Confederacy the Aros established covered the eastern part of Nigeria and stretched into the middle belt and delta areas of today's Nigeria. The Aros grew in power and trade, their military reached a zenith within the Cross River area. They were feared and no opposition arose against them. They established strong trade centers for slaves, palmnuts and palm oil.

Problem began to brew when the British arrived the west bank of Cross River. At first the Aros acted as dependable middlemen between the people of the hitherlands and the British. Agricultural produce from the interior areas of eastern Nigeria such as Ibeku, Owerri etc were first sold to Aro middlemen who in turn sold to the Royal Niger Company of Britain.This was a win win situation for all parties. The British became greedy along the line and pushed to get into the hitherlands to conduct trade directly. The British wanted to cut cost and also to garner as much raw materials as the hitherlands can be stretched.

The Royal Niger Company of Britain sought to by pass the normal chain of trade and this caused friction between the Aros and the British.The people of Aro feared the coming British power will destroy the already established way of life which includes the culture and traditions of the indigenous people. The alliance established between the Aros and her neighbors provided the Confederacy soldiers. These men were used to blockade the British advance into the hitherlands.

Not all indigenous people located on the western Cross River sided with the Aro Confederacy. Some allied with the British providing intel on the movement and situation of the Confederacy.

The Aros led by Okoro Toti launched a preepmtive attack on November 1901, they attacked and sacked Obegu, a British ally. The assault on Obegu resulted to many casualties. Obegu is located in present day Ugwunagbo local government in Abia state Nigeria. The British under Arthur Forbes Montanaro began a counter offensive penetration in the same month. Arthur chose to attack from four routes namely Ogwuta, Uwana, Agwete and Utu. Athur led about 2000+ combatant against  5000-6000 Aro defenders, the Aros fought out of sheer courage. The British soldiers were well equipped yet the Aros gave stiff opposition. For four days the British fought on until the defenders yielded, Arochukwu was then captured.

The Aro defenders dug trenches. They fought with what they can muster, majorly with machete. Less than a thousand soldiers armed with dane guns manned the trenches while the bulk of defenders stayed behind with machete ready to fill up positions in the trenches or provide direct assault on the British lines.
The Aros held on till March of 1902 when they finally surrendered at the battle of Bende.At the end of the war Okoro Toti was arrested and hanged by the British. The defeat did not silence the Aro people. They went on to participate and in most cases chaired major uprisings against British occupation. Though the sacrifice of these great men are partially forgotten, they showed us no enemy should be tolerated because of fear.

Greatest African Warrior Kings Of All Times..

               

SHAKA ZULU (1816-1828)

Shaka Zulu is a household name in Africa whenever might and brain on battlefields are discussed. He had a challenging childhood but never allowed it to be a stumbling block. Shaka was a military genus who refined many locally accepted war practices. Fearlessly he led his army against formidable enemies and came out victorious.History says Shaka was brutal and horrific on certain occasions. He carried out numerous assassinations, in some cases innocent villagers were executed.  He solidified and expanded the Zulu kingdom of South Africa.

THUTMOSE III 1479–1425 BC

Thutmose III had a long reign over Egypt.For 54 years he oversaw the progress of the most advanced civilization of that time. He stretched the powers of Egypt to far Northern and southern Syria through conquest, he was an intelligent statesman. Thutmose is regarded as the greatest war genius of ancient Egypt, Hence the name 'Napoleon of Egypt'. He also took lands in Canaan, Nubia and Mitanni cementing his lordship over a wide range of land across two continents.

SUNNI ALI BER 1464 – 1492

You must have heard the name 'Timbuktu' the acclaimed city of gold. Sunni Ali was the founder and first monarch of the famed Songhai empire. He founded the first capital of the Songhai empire Gao, from here he launched his conquests. He grew the strength of the empire to a zenith, then turned his attention towards the once mighty Malian empire. He subdued the once feared Malians taking their leading cities of which Timbuktu was the chief. He also established trade centers within his kingdom. Grain was the chief exported goods of the empire.

MANSA MUSA(c. 1280—c. 1337)

He was the the 10th emperor of the Malian empire. He took over an already established state. Musa did not hang his sword and relax, rather he continued the expansion of the great Malian empire. Mansa Musa took the Malian empire to a whole new level not only in military but in trade. During his reign the mining of gold increased so was the empire's wealth. Some claim he was the richest man to ever live because of his enormous wealth. He also started and completed so many buildings of architectural prowess within the Empire. He encouraged education establishing the university of Sankore.

HANNIBAL BARCA (247-183 BC)
Perhaps Hannibal was the greatest warrior Africa produced till date.His name is a household name all over the world. Till date his military tactics are studied in various Military academies.He is regarded by many military schools as the greatest military strategist of all time.
Hannibal can be regarded as the greatest freedom fighter of the continent. His country Carthage was under Roman rule and this did not go well with the warrior prince. Leading and army at the tender age of 26 c. he began a military campaign (the second Punic war) against the Roman empire that lasted for so many years. He marched into Italy and occupied Roman territories for 15 years. His presence in Italy was terror to the Romans, he defeated army after army sent to defeat him. Hannibal remained undefeated in Italy till he left Europe to defend Carthage. Defeated by the Romans at home in Carthage he fled to Seleucid where he joined the king's court as a military adviser. Seleucid went to war against Rome and Hannibal provided the best assistance he could give to the court of Seleucid. The Seleucid were defeated by the Romans and the great warrior fled. His final notable victory came at a naval battle against a fleet from Pergamon. Hannibal committed suicide rather than falling into the hands of his arch enemies- the Romans.

IDRIS ALOOMA (1580–1617)
Few kings are willing to risk their lives in battle, Idris Alooma was such a king.Idris Alooma was the Mai of Kaneem-Bornu empire between 1564–1596. His empire included areas of the modern day Nigeria, Chad, Niger and Cameroon. Like Shaka Zulu though before him, he reorganized the army and introduced various amendments. Idris Alooma made functional and easy to attain military policies. He extended the Sefawa power over the Kanuri empire. He also sought to expand the kingdom of Bornu. The majority of wealth flowing into the empire came through plunder and tribute from conquered lands. Idris Alooma also controlled trade routes to North Africa giving him a healthy monopoly. He began a steady campaign which united all semi-independent states within Bornu into a united Islamic state.Idris Alooma brought military and civil success to the kingdom of Bornu.

YOU ARE MAGNIFICENT AND NOBLE(why you need self-esteem)

    

Through life we ask ourselves mind searching questions. This may be due to one or two mistakes, or what we perceive as a shortcoming. How many times do we ask these questions? How worthy am I? Am I doing enough to succeed? Will I even succeed in life? Can I handle this new job? Am I ready to pass this exam?

We all battle with the idea we are not good enough in life. How fast we are to point out a certain perceived defect and that becomes our excuse. We spend quality time in thoughts of goodwill channeled towards us, yet we perceive our suppose inabilities strongly at the same time. The elements or vibrations created during your thoughts of goodness and success surely come in conflict with low self-esteem.  These conflicts halt every march to success because we failed to take the next step out of our own making. Self-esteem is needed for a healthy, energy-filled and prosperous life. One becomes filled with more energy, wisdom and self knowledge when there is self-esteem. Not only this, the listed qualities are not dormant but actively propel the individual who exhibit self-esteem.

 

I read somewhere that psychologists have proved that attractive people succeed and are likely to occupy top professions in the world. People are drawn to these attractive people both consciously and otherwise. This is a scientific fact but the problem is the definition of attractive. When I write of attractiveness I don’t mean physical beauty. To better understand let’s look at the following analogy; would you choose to become friends with a successful businessperson with business outlets in five different countries who may not be that physically endowed?  Or become friends with a beautiful person with no direction in life? Attractiveness surpasses physical beauty. Doctors, lawyers, successful business persons, sports men and women, geneticists and other successful endeavors are seen to be attractive. Self-esteem which draws breath from being attractive is all about packaging and the worth one is able to offer. The above individuals draw people towards them because they have found a reason to increase their self-esteem.

 No two humans are the same. Each of us is unique and filled with a set of awesome qualities. I have met people who say they posses no talents. Well, the good news is that all of us have special abilities and talents whether we want it or not. There is something each of us has that the world need but many are yet to search within to find who they are truly. As much as we all have wonderful talents so do we have shortcomings too. The person you envy is just like you. You see his talents but have failed to see his shortcomings while you see your own shortcomings but turned blind eye to your own abilities and talents. We are similar in making but differ in what we bring to the table. Our talents and abilities are meant to fill a void or longings thus we can rightfully say we live a complementary life. A poor talker is a good listener, while the fast and loud talker makes life easy going. A quiet individual shows sympathy and encourages while the party type removes moody atmosphere. Now we can strongly proclaim the usability and importance of each one cannot be over emphasized. When you hide yourself because you think life cheated you, look again and you will find a niche life wants you to fill. We all are important in the scheme of life. When we embrace our uniqueness it become easier for us to turn up our worth and self-esteem.

Once a person enhances self-esteem, the individual must feel on top of the world and confident. We become attracted to such individual. Self-esteem allows us to approach problems without fear knowing we can succeed if we try. Most times we visualize outsiders as capable of solving our problems. We see the next man having the so called needed abilities to solve our problems. Because we look outside for that savior we fail to stimulate self to find ideas. When we believe in ourselves and truly look inwards, ideas and confidence will not only surface but spurn us into action. Only when we trust and believe in ourselves that we can be able to help others. It seems easier to trust in a being or an outsider as religious institutions have caused us to. This is now the time to have faith in our selves.

When we show great faith in ourselves, telling self how great you are, it is natural that the greatness we profess becomes real as we begin to have ideas, confidence and the ability to see problems from different perspective. This increases our chances of surmounting them as we no longer count ourselves failures or unworthy. YOU ARE WHAT YOU MAKE YOURSELF

SCHOOL STRENGTH(a note on introduction to amphibian. For secondary schools)

•  Amphibians are organism with the ability to inhabit both  terrestrial and aquatic habitat. We can say they are able to live on land and in water.

• They are vertebrates.

• Amphibians evolved from lobed- fin fish.

                                                                                           

• The Amphibians belong to the class Amphibia.
• They evolved certain mechanisms and structures that allowed them to live on land and also in water. Let us look at some of these innovations that allowed for their survival on both habitats.

   ü  The developed legs to support their weight on land and also allow for movement. They are the first vertebrates to walk on land. Is that not cool?

  ü  They developed lungs which allowed them to exchange gases on land. Wow! This is the most important adaptation since amphibians no more needs dissolved oxygen to respire.                                                                                                  


     ü Amphibians developed a better heart, a three  chambered heart (ventricle and two atria).  They can now  pump that oxygen and nutrient to cells on record time!   Hippeee!!!

ü  The young ones are known as tadpoles and resemble a fish. The tadpoles have two chambered heart just like a fish and gaseous exchange is through gills.

ü  Amphibians can do without water too, they lay their eggs on water to avoid drying out. Oh watch out! The eggs are not tasty because of the sticky unpalatable liquid covering the eggs.

ü  They exhibit external fertilization. Males shed their sperm on the eggs immediately they are released.

ü  Most Amphibians undergo metamorphosis (life cycle). First the egg is led then it hatches releasing the larvae(tadpole), finally the tadpole undergoes different stages of development to become an adult

   ü  Most amphibians can breathe through their skin. They are super! Super! Organisms        And unique to be able to do that. This type of respiration is known as cutaneous respiration            

·                                           Amphibians are classified into three orders;

1.       The Anura (meaning ‘WITHOUT A TAIL’): this includes the frog and toads. There are 22 families and 3680 species of amphibians in this order. Wow! Isn’t that much specie?

2.         The Urodela (meaning ‘VISIBLE TAIL’): the salamanders are found here. There are about 369 species of amphibians in 6 families found here.

3.        The Apoda (meaning ‘WITHOUT LEG’): The amphibians in this order are usually found in the tropics. They might just be nearer than you think if you are living in the tropics. There are 6 families and 168 species in this order.

                            Scientific Classification of the African Dwarf Frog

 

Kingdom:  Animalia

Phylum:    chordate

Class:        Amphibia   chordata   oof the tadpole undergoes different stages of development to become ann

Order:        Anura

Family:       pipidae

Genus:      Hymenochirus Species:     boettgeri ,    boulengeri

THE ASANTE EMPIRE

                                                                                

The Asante Kingdom is one well known all over Africa.  In the seventeenth century the Oyoka clan moved from Pra-Ofin basin towards the north. This migrating group settled near Kumasi in the Kwaman forest. They met the land around this area already occupied by earlier migrants from the Pra ofin confluence. The Oyoka linage established five city-states including what is today Kumasi. Kumasi was founded around 1660’s and 1670’s by Obiri Yeboa according to oral tradition.

The Asante Empire began a quick and steady rise due to some reasons. The first was the establishment of small Asante states within the Kumasi area. Another reason was the flourishing slave trade and the good cooperation between the small states. The last reason is the audacity, brilliancy, resilience, martial ardor and leadership skills exhibited by the first three great rulers of the Asante empire- Obiri Yeboa, Osei Tutu and Okpoku Ware. These great leaders ruled between 1660’s to 1750’s.

The cooperation among these states did not remove rivalry though each flourished on trans-Saharan trade, however only five states among these small states stood tall among the others. They were said to be clansmen and each among the five states looked after the other.

First we must look critically on the major factors that got the Asante Empire to the zenith. There were two major trade routes that passed through the Asante area. The western trade route from Timbuktu, Jenne and Begho, and the eastern route from Hausaland met in the Kumasi region and turned towards the coast in several directions. We must also note that the forests of Kwaman region was rich in gold and kola nuts and these were vital products of commerce. These products provided not only a lucrative trade but also wealth to the area. It will be worthwhile to point out that the rise of the Asante Empire was due to the available products of commerce and her strategic location. Another important factor to note is the togetherness fostered by these states, this was brought about in part by the oppression of the superior power of Denkyira at that time.

 These small states prior to the establishment of the Asante power were tributaries of Denkyira between 1650 and 1660. The rule of the Denkyira was one of oppression for her vassal states. The kingdom also obstructed the route to the coast severing direct trade between the states and the outside world. These factors necessitated the need to overthrow the kingdom of Denkyira. 

Around 1670’s, the first great ruler of the Asante came to power. Obiri Yeboa perfected the foundation that led to the birth of the true union of Asante. He led campaigns to conquer surrounding states that rejected the offer of a united Asante state. The great ruler was killed in battle around late 1670’s.

Osei Tutu came to power came to power probably around 1680. He was an astounding diplomat, administrator and a fearless warrior than his uncle Obiri Yeboa. He was the maternal nephew of Obiri Yeboa and this proved that succession to the throne was through maternal linage among the Akans of ancient Ghana. According to tradition Osei Tutu lived for a time in Denkyiri he acquired knowledge on military organization and statecraft. He also spent some years in the Akwamu region, and it was here he became the friend of Okomfo Anokye, a priest. Anokye played a vital role in the establishment of the Asante union. Osei Tutu persuaded the priest to come with him to Kumasi after the death of his uncle.

Coming to power Osei Tutu called on his friend Okomfo Anokye for advice. Both decided to call together the whole neighboring states in Kumasi loyal to the Okoyoko clan. The crafty friends knew they needed something strong to glue together these states as one, and in a lasting manner. The two friends found such glue in the now famous sacrosanct Golden Stool. Tradition said the priest Anokye brought down the golden stool from the sky amidst clouds and thunder. He then proceeded to announce that the stool is the soul of the united Asante Empire. The Golden stool was never to be lost and the lineage of Osei Tutu was forever the custodian of the stool and sole rulers of the Asante union. We should also note that the stool descent may not be taking as a physical occurrence. This may also represent the coming of a kingship never known to the people of the Kumasi region, thus it is said to come from the sky. But the important thing is the unity created by the new kingship Osei Tutu and his friend formed. 

Osei Tutu completed the uniting process his uncle began. He also drew up a constitution for the new empire and this was based on the allegiance of the subordinate chiefs who took a sacred oath to carry out all political ambitions of the king. He reorganized the empire’s army and continued the expansion of the empire. The constitution introduced by Osei was based on the already established Akan practices. The constitution was modeled to strip the subordinate chief the ability to rebel thus minimizing internal conflicts.

Osei Tutu fashioned his military like that of Akwamu. There were four divisions of the army known as lieutenancies; the van, the rear, the right and the left wing. Military service was compulsory for every able-bodied man.  The army was structured in a way troops are easily mobilized and funds are quickly generated through immediate taxes. With this well formed military he waged wars against neighboring states with ferocity and brilliance. Example of such wars was with the like waged against Tafo, Amakom and Ofinso, all neighboring states. Tafo and Amakom fell to the invading Asante army becoming part of the empire while Ofinso held out against the Asante troops. Between 1699 and 1701, Osei Tutu turned his army towards their lords the Denkyira and her allies. Denkyira was defeated and she became a tributary to Asante. The Asante soldiers carried away lots of war booties and the very valuable rental note for the castle at Elmina. This castle gave Osei Tutu the right to control an important trade route to the coast. The rise of this empire caused European traders to send representatives to the court of Osei TuTu. The Dutch sent an ambassador to the court in 1701.

It was now the turn of the allies of Denkyira who still refused to accept the lordship of Asante. Osei tutu sent his army towards these allies among which Akim was the strongest. Though at this time the Akim kingdom was depleted in soldiers, she lost about thirty thousand men during her support of Denkyira against Osei Tutu. Akim was annexed by Asante in the early 1700.

Osei Tutu faced the problem of rightly integration of these new conquered states into the empire. He was unable to effectively manage the now large empire.  Akim remain a thorn in the flesh of Osei Tutu. They revolted time after time and each time they were defeated. It was during an expedition to suppress the Akim rebellion that Osei Tutu was killed in 1712 while crossing the Pra river with his troops.

His death gave rise to the great oath. At this time the Empire was already a mighty one and strongly united by the Asante golden stool.    

THE CENTRAL DELTA STATE OF NEMBE

The Nembe people are a well known tribe in the Delta region of Nigeria.  The origin of the Nembe was one not truly defined as there were so many traditions on how the once great state came to be. For this exposition we shall follow the tradition recorded by the historian E.J Alagou. According to this tradition, Nembe was founded by three men namely; Obolo, Olodia and Onyo. These three were believed to have migrated from the region of Benin, warri or around western Ijo. These men defeated indigenes of the Nembe area and took over the land. To this day these three men are locally worshiped as gods in the Nembe area. 

Not long a second migration occurred. The man Ogidiga who was of the linage of Ginuwa who founded Ode-Itesekiri led a band of war-like immigrants to the Nembe area. Ogidiga and his fellow migrants came from Benin-Warri area.

A third Migration occurred from the Benin-Warri area. This band of third immigrants established the ports of Twon and Akassa.

These influx of war-like migrants yielded fruit after a while. According to the historian E.J Alagou, the first notable ruler of Nembe Kala-Ekule, began his reign around 1450AD or 1500AD. This led to the birth of the Kala-Ekule dynasty, the dynasty lasted for several years until the death of Basau the last king of the Kala-Ekule dynasty. The death of Basau resulted in a long bloody civil war in Nembe. His sons went to war against each other for the right to the throne. The two sons Mingi and Ogbodo fought on for a time but none came out victorious and they had to contend themselves with carved out kingdoms. 

Mingi became the king of the state of Nembe Bassambiri while the brother ruled over a second portion Ogolommabiri. Both Kings headed a very powerful house. Traditions holds it that the King of Bassambiri was a stout very tall man and could be said to be a giant. He was believed to be strong enough to lift and throw a full grown man with one hand. He stammered in speech and had a repulsive appearance, he also suffered from quick temper and was cruel to his people.

Ogbodo on the other hand was the opposite of his brother. He loved peace. Ogbodo fought his brother for a good part of his reign for the sake of peace and prosperity for his people. Many who found a means fled the oppressive rule of Mingi and joined up with Ogbodo’s Ogolombiri. Though these migrations continued for a time, the weaker nature of Ogbodo meant he was unable to effectively establish a strong dynasty for his successors. It is worthy to note that Ogbodo was the senior among the two brothes.

King Mingi died around 1770 and was succeeded by his son Ikata. Unlike his father, Ikata was a wise warrior who showed mercy in war. War captives were treated well under his rule. He also introduced war canoes into Nembe. This allowed for quicker movement of his troops.

One of the most famous wars he partook in was the Bile war. Around 1780AD, king Ikata sent some traders to contact the European merchants located across the Kalabari area. The traders went through the bonny and Kalabari areas in search of these European merchants. The successful traders on their way back were greeted by the King of Amakiri of Elem Kalabari. The King who had a deep respect for King Ikata gave these traders gifts of Ivory for their King. The traders continued their journey homeward but as they crossed the region of Bile they were raided by the Bile inhabitants. Many of the traders were killed and few managed to reach Nembe. At first King Ikata took the news as an event of fate and refused to go to war against the Bile state. His sister ridiculed him for not avenging the ill suffered by his traders.  Though he chose a path of peace, however wanting to prove to his sister the decision to avoid war was to prevent more bloodshed rather than fear, he assembled his war canoes. His warriors went after the army of Bile which they utterly destroyed proving his initial silence meant peace and not weakness. Ikata strengthened the Kingdom of Nembe, this led other states to jostle for her alliance especially the king of Amakiri